For 2,000 years Japan had never been defeated. There was no word for "surrender" in the Japanese dictionary. And although the Japanese government never believed it could defeat the United States, it did intend to negotiate an end to the war on favorable terms. It hoped that by attacking the fleet at Pearl Harbor it could delay American intervention, gaining time to solidify its Asian empire. Then it planned to fight a decisive battle that would bloody American forces, forcing the U.S. to negotiate a peace and leave Japan's old order, the emperor and the military government, in power.
Predicting U.S. Actions
After losing the Mariana Islandsand the Battle of the Philippine Sea in July 1944, Japan realized that the decisive battlewas likely to be fought on Japan's main islands. In January 1945 Japan's high command anticipated exactly what the U.S. would do -- and began to plan for it. Japanese strategists predicted correctly that Americans would assault the islands of Iwo Jima and then Okinawa, where the Japanese hoped fierce resistance would force a negotiated peace. The Japanese also prepared for an invasion of Japan from Okinawa. American fighter planes' range indicated where the landing would be -- on the island of Kyushu. From Kyushu, planners predicted the Americans would try to launch an invasion of Tokyo. The Japanese called the final decisive battle on the main islandsKetsu-Go.
Suicidal Plans
The Japanese strategy was to destroy the invader's landing vessels before they hit the beaches. For this purpose, Japan had reserved about 5,000 conventional aircraft and a variety of suicide vehicles, including about 5,500 kamikazeplanes, 1,300 suicide submarines, and several hundred piloted bombs. There were even frogmen, wearing explosives, who would blow up landing craft —and themselves.
The Last Stand
The invaders who made it to shore would face Imperial Army divisions expected, as always, to fight to the last man. Civilians were recruited to fight alongside the soldiers with sharpened bamboo spears. The government held up as a model to civilians on the main islands the civilians on Saipanwho had jumped off cliffs rather than surrender. Richard B. Frank, author ofDownfall: the End of the Imperial Japanese Empire, describes their position: "In their war gaming of Ketsu-Go, the Japanese had worked out that they could destroy up to a third of the invasion force while it was still afloat. If you consider how General [George] Marshallrecoiled when he saw the defense buildupin early August, I think the Japanese had a substantial basis to believe that Ketsu-Go could deliver something to them better than unconditional surrender."
June Decision
Although the Japanese emperor, Hirohito, had approved Ketsu-Go in January, it was presented to him again on June 8 by a new government. Every government sought the emperor's sanction for its plans. That day the emperor and his war cabinet also considered reports that doubted Japan's ability to continue the war. One report stressed its industry was wrecked, local police were concerned about popular unrest, food was short, and if the fall rice harvest were low, there could be mass starvation. Other reports said the Imperial Navy was sunk and the Imperial Army in China depleted. "And everyone says, 'Well, yes, but let's fight to the bitter end.' The extremity of their situation actually propels them to seek a decisive battle before their condition becomes so hapless, they can't even do that," recounts historian Edward Drea.
Envoy to Moscow
Japan's government was ruled by consensus, and the emperor's role was to sanction its unanimous decisions. Nonetheless, after the June 8th meeting, both the emperor and his chief adviser, Marquis Koichi Kido, were troubled. They began to seek a diplomatic solution, asking the Soviet Union to mediate an end to the war. Two weeks later, on June 22, the emperor did something highly unusual. He opened a conference with his war cabinet by announcing he wanted to send a special envoy to Moscow. The war cabinet agreed for different reasons. The peace faction hoped it would lead to peace. The hard-liners hoped it would keep the Soviet Union, which had recently ended a neutrality agreement with Japan, from declaring war.
Final Days
On July 27, when Japan's government ignored an Allied ultimatum from Potsdam, warning of "prompt and utter destruction" unless it surrendered unconditionally, it was still waiting to hear from Moscow. On August 6, the U.S. dropped the world's first deployed atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Japanese-held Manchuria on the night of August 8. The war cabinet met to consider peace terms for the first time the next morning, learning while they were in deliberations that the Americans had used a second atomic weapon on Nagasaki. Government hard-liners still held out, hoping not only to maintain the imperial system, but also for other terms designed to preserve the old order. They even hoped to avoid a U.S. occupation. The emperor had to intervene twice, on August 9 and 14, to break deadlocks in his war cabinet and get it to accept the Allies' terms. On August 15, Japanese citizens heard the emperor's voice for the first time, broadcasting news of the nation's capitulation -- without once using the word "surrender."
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The article you've provided discusses Japan's strategy during World War II in the Pacific, detailing their intentions, plans, and eventual surrender. The concepts involved here cover various aspects of Japan's wartime strategies, the U.S. actions and responses, the mindset and planning within the Japanese military and government, and the eventual culmination of events leading to Japan's surrender.
Let's break down the key concepts addressed in the article:
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Japanese Strategy and Intentions: Japan, historically undefeated for centuries, lacked a term for "surrender." They intended not to defeat the U.S. outright but to negotiate a favorable end to the war. Their strategy involved delaying American intervention, fortifying their Asian empire, and forcing a decisive battle that would weaken American forces.
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Anticipation of U.S. Actions: Japan's high command anticipated American movements after losses in crucial battles like those in the Mariana Islands and the Philippine Sea. They correctly predicted U.S. assaults on Iwo Jima and Okinawa, preparing for fierce resistance in hopes of forcing a negotiated peace.
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Ketsu-Go and Suicidal Plans: Ketsu-Go referred to the final decisive battle on Japan's main islands. Japan planned to use unconventional tactics, including kamikaze planes, suicide submarines, and human-based suicide attacks, aiming to destroy the invading forces before they reached the shore.
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Last Stand and Civilian Participation: The plan involved the Imperial Army fighting intensely and civilians joining the combat with bamboo spears. The government held up examples of civilian suicides on Saipan as a model for resisting surrender.
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Japanese Government's Assessment: Reports highlighted Japan's dire situation, including wrecked industry, food shortages, and military depletion. Despite this, some factions aimed to fight to the bitter end, while others sought a decisive battle before conditions worsened irreparably.
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Emperor's Role and Diplomatic Efforts: The emperor's role was crucial in sanctioning government decisions. Despite initial plans for a decisive battle, the emperor and his adviser sought a diplomatic solution, attempting to involve the Soviet Union in mediating peace.
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The Path to Surrender: Despite Japan's government ignoring Allied warnings and waiting for a diplomatic response from Moscow, the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, along with the Soviet Union's declaration of war, pushed the government toward acceptance of the Allies' terms. The emperor intervened twice to break deadlocks in the war cabinet, leading to Japan's capitulation on August 15, 1945.
These concepts paint a vivid picture of Japan's strategies, the desperate measures taken in the face of imminent defeat, and the eventual surrender that marked the end of World War II in the Pacific.
