Europe is the second-smallest continent. The name
Europe
, or Europa, is believed to be of Greek origin, as it is the name of a princess in Greek mythology. The name
Europe
may also come from combining the Greek roots eur- (wide) and -op (seeing) to form the phrase “wide-gazing.”
Europe
is often described as a “peninsula of
peninsulas
.” A
peninsula
is a piece of land surrounded by water on three sides.
Europe
is a
peninsula
of the Eurasian super
continent
and is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian seas to the south.
Europe
’s main
peninsulas
are the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan, located in southern
Europe
, and the Scandinavian and Jutland, located in northern
Europe
. The link between these
peninsulas
has made
Europe
a dominant economic, social, and cultural force throughout recorded history.
Europe
’s physical geography, environment and resources, and human geography can be considered separately.
Today,
Europe
is home to the citizens of Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kosovo, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland), and Vatican City.
Cultural Geography
Europe
has a long history of human development and is considered the birthplace of Western Civilization. Today, this cultural wealth is used to solidify the
European
Community and is exported to the rest of the world as one of the
continent
’s greatest global assets.
Historic Cultures
Indigenous cultures shaped, and were shaped by, the varied geography of
Europe
. Physical features, weather-related phenomena, and local
resources
had a deep impact on how historic
European
cultures prospered, interacted, and believed their world worked.
The geography and climate of the Mediterranean region, for example, directly influenced Greek
mythology
. Most Greek gods and goddesses are representations of the active physical elements that made up the local landscape. The volcanoes of Lemnos, an island in the Mediterranean, and Mount Etna, on the island of Sicily, were believed to be the forges of Hephaestus, the Greek god of fire. Ancient Greeks also believed reigning gods imprisoned lesser gods underneath the volcanoes. A volcano’s violent nature thus came from the work of Hephaestus and the anger of the imprisoned gods.
The ancient Greeks’ connection to the sea also deeply influenced their
mythological
beliefs. Greece’s many earthquakes, and the tsunamis they caused, were connected to the sea god Poseidon, known as the “Earth Shaker.” Cults and temples centered on Poseidon were built throughout the Aegean and Mediterranean seas as a means of appeasing the god.
As maritime trade and exploration developed in the region, winds and currents connected to Poseidon became important in Greek
mythology
. The gods could both reward and punish travelers and
traders
with favorable or unfavorable sea conditions. This is a main theme of The Odyssey, an epic poem written by Homer, in which these key elements of the sea both help and hurt the hero.
Other cultures developed around the unique
resources
at their disposal. The Sami culture of
Scandinavia
, for example, was deeply connected to the
indigenous
reindeer herds of the Arctic. The Sami followed and cared for these herds during their grazing cycle. During the harsh winter, the Sami ate all parts of the animal. They created clothing and tents out of reindeer hides, sewing together the cloth with twine made from the animal’s tendons.
Keeping track of herds and individual animals became increasingly important in Sami life. In order to distinguish herds, families and communities developed a pattern of cuts and notches on the animals’ ears.
Reindeer were also the Sami’s main method of transporting goods during their nomadic journeys. These journeys varied in length, depending on the migration patterns of specific reindeer herds. Some reindeer herds have a home range of up to 5,000 square kilometers (1,930 square miles).
Reindeer herding is still an important aspect of Sami culture, which continues to thrive in northern
Scandinavia
and Russia’s Kola
Peninsula
.
Distinct physical features had a lasting impact on how
European
cultures communicated with each other. With its central
European
location but geographic remoteness, the Alps region developed into a unique crossroads for
Europe
’s dominant languages, and a refuge for its archaic languages. This linguistic diversity is present in the Alpine regions of many contemporary
European
countries today.
Switzerland, for example, has four official languages: German, French, Italian, and Romansch. During the Middle Ages, dominant
European
powers conquered the strategically important mountain territory of the Alps. Around 400 CE, the Alemanni, a Germanic tribe, invaded present-day northern Switzerland. Today, this is the German-speaking region of the country.
Around this same time, Roman conquerors took over present-day southern Switzerland. Latin, the language of Rome, evolved into French in the western region, and Italian in the south. Because of their remoteness, however, all these regions have distinct dialects that differ slightly from their parent language. Swiss-Italian is
distinguishable
from Italian.
Romansch, an endangered language, is also derived from
Latin
. Fewer than a million people are fluent in Romansch. The language survives in Switzerland because of the remote location of its native speakers.
Contemporary Cultures
Europe
’s rich and diverse cultural heritage continues to flourish today. With such a large number of nationalities compacted into such a small area,
Europe
strongly supports individual cultural identities and products.
The
European
Capitals of Culture program, started in 1985, has become one of
Europe
’s most important and high-profile cultural events. The goals of the program are local, regional, and global. The program highlights
Europe
’s rich cultural diversity, celebrates its cultural ties, and brings people of different
European
backgrounds together. The program has provided a lasting
economic
boost to cities and regions, raised their international profiles, and enhanced their images in the eyes of their own inhabitants.
Each year, two or three cities are chosen to produce a year-long program of cultural events. This program must not only highlight the city’s unique cultural heritage, but also feature new events that unite a range of cultural practices from across
Europe
. All of the events must come together under a common theme or themes. One Capital of Culture of 2011, Turku, Finland, focused on culture’s positive influence on health and well-being. Many of its events encouraged community involvement and civic engagement. Projects are meant to stay a part of the city after 2011—some pieces of sculpture may be used for athletics, for instance. Turku officials hope to inspire other
European
countries to undertake similar projects.
Europe
also strengthens ties between its diverse peoples and cultures by supporting multilingual education. The European Union has 23 official languages, and the
continent
has more than 60
indigenous
languages.
Flourishing
immigrant communities are bringing in new languages to the
continent
, including Arabic, Hindi, and Mandarin.
A 2006
European
study showed that 53 percent of respondents could speak a second language, while 28 percent could speak two fo
reign
languages. The study also showed that only 8 percent of respondents considered language-learning unimportant.
The
European
Union
has adopted a multilingual language policy with the goal that everyone should be able to speak at least two languages in addition to their own. By supporting this policy, the
European
Union
hopes it will strengthen social, educational, professional, and
economic
ties in
Europe
and make the
continent
more competitive in global markets.
Europe
’s cultural products also help unify the region. Certain countries and regions have even developed an identity or “branding” focused on specific products and exports.
Scandinavian
design, for instance, is primarily focused on fashion and home wares. It is characterized by simple, minimalist design and low-cost mass production. Important
Scandinavian
companies focused on designed products include Electrolux, which makes home electronics, and Ikea and H&M, famous around the world for inexpensive but well-designed home furnishings and clothing, respectively.
Italian fashion is also an important cultural export. The city of Milan is regarded as a major fashion capital, hosting an international fashion week twice a year. The city is home to the headquarters of luxury brands such as Valentino, Gucci, Versace, and Prada. Milan is also home to important
European
fashion magazines, such as Grazia, Vogue Italia, and Vera.
German automotive design has a global reputation for excellence and prestige. Automobile companies such as BMW, Mercedes, and Audi are known throughout the world for creating cars with dynamic designs and an engaging driving experience. The country is also home to a number of outstanding schools for automotive design, such as the Hochschule Esslingen and Hochschule Pforzheim.
Political Geography
Europe
’s long history and
economic
progress have been shaped by its
political geography
.
Political geography
is the internal and external relationships between governments, citizens, and territories. Early
Europeans
, in fact, shaped global ideas of citizenship and
government
. These ideas have been tested during times of peace and military conflict, and continue to be redefined today.
Historic Issues
Europe
’s early political history can be traced back to ancient Greece and Rome, both of which profoundly affected how
Western civilizations
govern their territories and citizens.
Described as the birthplace of democracy, ancient Greece revolved around the polis, or city-state. City-states were unique in that they were governed not by a hereditary ruler, but by a political body that represented its citizens. This idea of citizenship—of being connected to and having a voice in your community—became the basic building block of
democracy
. The word “
democracy
” has Greek roots: demos-, meaning “people,” and -kratos, meaning “power.” Prominent Greek philosophers, such as Socrates and Plato, discussed democratic ideals in their writings.
Philosophers
and politicians have used these writings to uphold and defend the democratic tradition ever since.
Roman civilization had a major influence on Western concepts of law,
government
, and the military. At its largest, Rome controlled approximately 6.5 million square kilometers (2.5 million square miles) of land.
The Roman approach to conquering and controlling territory is often considered to be the basis of Western imperialism.
Imperialism
is a policy of extending a nation’s power and influence through diplomacy or military force.
Imperialism
is a policy that has been used throughout history, most notably by
European
powers and the United States. Other political institutions of Rome persist throughout
Europe
and former
European
colonies. Some of these concepts include the idea of an elected Senate and the stationing of military troops outside a country’s home region.
World War I and World War II dramatically affected the
political geography
of
Europe
. World War I (1914-1918) left about 16 million people dead. The Central Powers (led by the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire) fell to the forces of the Allied Powers (led by the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire). By the end of the war, the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires collapsed and broke into a dozen separate nations.
Borders
between existing nations, such as Poland and Russia, were entirely redrawn.
World War II (1939-1945) left about 43 million
Europeans
dead, including about 6 million who died in the Holocaust. The
Holocaust
was the mass murder of Jews under the Nazi regime. World War II also left more than 40 million refugees, contributed to the independence of
European
colonies throughout the world, and devastated the urban infrastructure of many
European
cities.
As a result of the devastation of World War II, Western
Europe
’s leadership in global politics diminished. The United States began to lead the Western world, while the Soviet Union, with its capital in the Eastern
European
city of Moscow, Russia, led the so-called Eastern Bloc. The relationship between the United States, with a free-market economy, and the
Soviet Union
, with a communist economy, was known as the Cold War.
The “Iron Curtain” represents
Europe
’s
political geography
during the Cold War. The Iron Curtain was an ideological boundary that divided
Europe
into two blocs—Western countries influenced by the United States, and Eastern countries influenced by the
Soviet Union
. International
economic
and military organizations developed on either side of the Iron Curtain. The United States and the
Soviet Union
built up huge nuclear arsenals, with many missiles aimed at targets throughout
Europe
.
The Iron Curtain took on the physical shape of
border
defenses, walls, and limited
diplomacy
. The nation of Germany was divided in two. In fact, the most famous symbol of the Iron Curtain was the Berlin Wall, which divided the East German city of Berlin into western and eastern-controlled parts.
The
economic
and political demise of the
Soviet Union
led to the end of the Iron Curtain in the late 1980s. During this time, a number of anti-communist revolutions swept central and eastern
Europe
. These
revolutions
eventually lead to the end of the Cold War, symbolized by the falling of the
Berlin Wall
in 1989.
Contemporary Issues
Europe
is now broadly defined in the context of the
European
Union
(EU), an
economic
and political body officially created by the Maastricht Treaty in 1993. The EU works to create a unified structure for social,
environmental
, military, and
economic
policies of its member states.
Today, the
European
Union
is composed of 27 member states, with new members mainly coming from central and eastern
Europe
. The financial and diplomatic success of the EU has led to its rapid growth across the
continent
.
The
euro
is one of the strongest currencies in the world. The
euro
is the second-most popular currency (behind the American dollar) and is used daily by more than 320 million people. Nations that use the
euro
as a unit of
currency
are called the “
eurozone
.”
Leadership of the EU, split among different branches and institutions, is a working model of international cooperation. The EU accepts few candidates: member states must maintain a stable, democratic form of
government
, a
free-market economy
, and commitment to the rule of law.
The rapid growth of the
European
Union
, however, has caused a number of administrative and political tensions. Critics believe the process of attaining EU membership is too difficult for
Europe
’s developing economies. Strict EU regulations place a heavy burden on developing countries to compete with their more developed neighbors.
The global financial crisis, which began around 2008, has caused these tensions to elevate dramatically. The
financial crisis
is defined by debt and high unemployment. The
European
Union
created a $957 billion “rescue package” for the EU economy, primarily for countries that had unsustainable
debt
rates. These countries included Greece, Ireland, Spain, and Portugal. This rescue package has caused tensions to rise between
economically
competitive countries and the in
debted
countries that they are helping to rescue. In
debted
countries must now deal with strict budgets and declining incomes while more financially stable countries are forcing taxpayers to help fund the financial rescue.
The status of
immigrants
is also a source of tension and debate in
Europe
. Historically,
Europe
has been a center of immigration. The
European
Union
has established the Schengen Area—a zone where
Europeans
can travel from country to country without having to show their passports. The
financial crisis
, along with concerns about
immigrants
’ connections to terrorism and religious extremism, has caused
Europe
to develop a more guarded approach to immigration. Some critics argue these attitudes are xenophobic. Xenophobia is an intense dislike or fear of people from other places or cultures.
Two events demonstrate this debate. In 2005, the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten published 12 cartoons featuring Islamic subjects. The political cartoons sought to engage in the debate surrounding Muslim extremism. Many Muslim organizations, however, saw the cartoons as bigoted, racist, and insulting. Protests developed across the Muslim world, and demonstrators set fire to Danish embassies in Lebanon, Iran, and Syria. These events had a devastating effect on Denmark’s reputation as a progressive and welcoming country. The debate surrounding the cartoons also intensified strained relations between the
Islamic
world and the West.
In 2010, the French
government
dismantled illegal
immigrant
camps throughout France. These camps were mostly populated by Roma, also called Gypsies. Roma are a people and culture native to central and eastern
Europe
. In the face of an
economic
crisis, EU citizens of poorer member countries, such as the Roma of Bulgaria and Romania, often migrate to more developed EU countries in search of work. Developed countries, however, are also facing
economic
challenges. These nations do not feel an obligation to accept illegal
immigrants
, seeing them as both a threat and a burden.
Supporters of the crackdown want to stop illegal immigration. Critics argue the move was racist.
Future Issues
An important predictor of
Europe
’s political and
economic
future is its efforts to minimize the effects of climate change.
Europe
is often seen as a world leader in
environmentally
friendly technologies and legislation. The 2009 United Nations
Climate Change
Conference was held in Copenhagen, Denmark. As part of an international agreement signed at the conference, all 27 member states of the
European
Union
agreed to reduce carbon emissions by 20 percent by 2020 (from 1990 levels).
The EU also notified the UN of a “conditional offer to increase this cut to 30 percent, provided that other major emitters agree to take on their fair share of a global reduction effort.” This conditional offer illustrates the tension that was present at the conference between developed countries’ high
carbon emissions
and developing countries’ low or rising carbon use. In fact, many developing nations argued that the Copenhagen Accord was drafted by a small group of powerful countries and unfairly disadvantages poorer countries, many of which are expected to suffer the worst effects of
climate change
.
The ageing of
Europe
’s population is also expected to dramatically affect the
continent
’s social, political, and financial future. The overall population of
Europe
is set to drop from roughly 590 million to 542 million by 2050. The proportion of people older than 65 will grow from 16 percent to 28 percent. These projected changes will have two major effects: There will be a smaller work force to create a dynamic and industrious economy, and
governments
and citizens will have to care for more elderly people.
These changes will affect different regions of
Europe
in different ways. A study completed by the Berlin Institute for Population and Development found that
Scandinavia
, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, western Germany, Switzerland, Slovenia, Austria, and France have the best prospects of supporting vibrant and
economically
successful societies. Many of the most socially and
economically
powerful elements of these societies will be led by
immigrants
.
Developing countries, such as those in eastern and southern
Europe
, are expected to bear the worst of the depopulation trend. Among the struggling economies that may suffer from
carbon emission
limits are Romania, Bulgaria, and Moldova.
Thus, it seems that
Europe
’s historic disparities between north and south, west and east, will continue to widen in the future. Enacting regional social policies and
economic
legislation
, especially through bodies like the
European
Union
, may help curb that trend.
Fast Fact
Population Density
188 people per square kilometer
Fast Fact
Highest Elevation
Mount Elbrus, Russia (5,642 meters/18,510 feet)
Fast Fact
Most Renewable Electricity Produced
Iceland (99.9%: hydropower, geothermal)
Fast Fact
Largest Urban Area
Moscow, Russia (16.2 million people)
Fast Fact
Largest Watershed
Volga River (1.38 million square km/532,821 square miles)
